gender and sexuality
This chapter considers some of the gender-specific dimensions of religious traditions in Chinese culture, understood through the dual prism of symbolic constructs and social practices. It emphasizes the nuanced influences of religious ideas and practices on the roles that men and women play in public life and explains how masculine and feminine roles have evolved. The chapter then discusses the important role of women in the revival of religions in contemporary China. The chapter concludes by considering the relationship between religion and masculinity in Chinese culture.
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Guanyin the goddess of mercy - A Male or female?
Many of us have heard of the popular deity Guanyin (觀音) in the Chinese world, whose name literally means the "perceiver of sounds" and is sometime termed as the "Goddess of Mercy". Very often from the scriptures and images of the deity, we can see Guanyin possessing certain feminine appearances, wearing pure white robe which makes her elegant long pitch-black hair more conspicuously seen. Like the image presented on the right of the two pictures above, Guanyin can be riding on a fierce dragon, seemingly expressing that the feminine deity is tenderly taming the strong masculine object. But indeed, the origin of this Chinese goddess is a masculine God widely venerated in India, Sri Lanka, or Southeast Asia, namely Avalokitesvara.
The story of princess miaoshan
How did a masculine god transform into a feminine deity? The story of Princess Miaoshan (妙善公主), disseminated since the twelfth century, is somehow related to the transformation of Guanyin's gender. Miaoshan, being the daughter of a King, was keen on practicing Buddhism celibacy; she kept a vegetarian diet and read Buddhism scriptures devotedly. One day, as Miaoshan refused to get married, she was punished by her father to death. But when Miaoshan's soul descended to hell, she preached the Buddhist Dharma to the souls and ghosts; and then, she was allowed to return to the world. .
Longquan Animation - The story of Princess Miaoshan (2012) - link to tudou.com
By this time, the king was very sick and found no medicine to cure. Knowing her father's illness, Miaoshan disguised as a monk and instructed the king to concoct a medicine mixed with hands and eyes, which had to be extracted from a person who had never felt anger. And the monk hinted that such person was living in the Mountain of Fragrances. Not surprisingly, the king's messenger found the one who willingly offered her eyes and limbs for the king's cure. Having recovered after taking the special prescription, the King went to the mountain to express his gratefulness to his savior, whom he discovered to be his own daughter Maioshan executed years ago.
Thousand Hands Guanyin Dance
Youtube clip: Thousand Hands Bodhisattva - performance at the 2005 CCTV Spring Festival Gala
The story ends with the climax of Miaoshan transforming into her true form of "Thousand Eyes, Thousand Arms Guanyin" (千眼千手觀音), which is the remarkable deity image well recognized by worshipers. Nowadays, the "thousand arms" myth has been incorporated into a collective mass dance (see the Youtube clip above) frequently performed on stage, where one can notice the sea of hands waving softly and tenderly in a rather feminine sense. Notably, the dancers are mostly female, while some performing groups may recruit hearing impaired women to perform in charity shows.
Could dalai lama be a woman?
The Chinese depiction of Guanyin, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, or Goddess of Mercy, always possesses the characteristics of female. However, in Tibetan, the spiritual leader Dalai Lama, considered to be the reincarnation of Avalokitesvara (Guanyin in Chinese), is always a man. And yet, in a TV interview (see below), when asked "Could it be a woman?", the incumbent 14th Dalai Lama answered, "Why not?" He claimed that women are biologically more potential to show compassion and could take a more important role to deal with troubles around the world. And he said, "If a female comes [to be the Dalai Lama], her face should be very, very attractive."
BBC interview - Dalai Lama's view on women (September 22, 2015)
gender roles in popular religion
The above example of Guanyin illustrates the subtlety of gender roles of a deity in China. Guanyin is a goddess in China but a masculine god in other places, like India, Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka. The concept of gender in Chinese religion seems to be vague and obscure; however, it is not meaningless. The pantheon of Chinese popular religion consists of hierarchical systems of male gods. The celestial hierarchy somehow looks alike the ancient imperial administrative system ruled by a masculine figure from the top: it is the Son of Heaven in the imperial court, and it is the Jade Emperor in the celestial hierarchy. Masculine figures are the symbolic constructs of authority, hierarchy, and legitimacy in Chinese society.
Images of the Jade Emperor in one classic animation "Havoc in Heaven" (大鬧天宮) produced in 1964.
Link to Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyZ4kvJl1jY
Link to Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyZ4kvJl1jY
On the other hand, a number of non-territorial cults, like Guanyin, Mazu, and the Unborn Mother, are remarkably female. These goddesses possess explicit female and motherhood features which make them responsible for the re-productivity, safety, and well-being of the children and mothers in a community. For instance, the goddess Mazu, one of the most famous popular deities in southeast China and Taiwan, is the guardian of the fishing communities along the coast. She was born in an ordinary fisherman family; one day when her father and brother were drowning in a typhoon, she went into a trance to save their lives. She succumbed to an early death after his heroic act, but her spirit continues to look after the lives and waters. And the name "Mazu", literally the "mother ancestor", is very much known as a mother figure that protects seafarers in the strait (see Youtube clip below). Notably, despite their status as all-encompassing mothers, oftentimes these women lose their specific sexual and reproductive characteristics.
Youtube clip - CCTV-9 Documentary Channel - In search of Goddess Mazu (2009)
confucian gender roles
We can observe both gender roles of male and female in the popular religion in China, and yet, Chinese society is clearly a patrilineal one that upholds distinct Confucian values. Sons are more valued in partilineal ancestor worship, since they fulfill ancestral obligations by continuing the family line. Women should take up the responsibility of domestic chores, and men should be the ones who dominate the public sphere. Julia Huang, one of the authors of the chapter ‘Gender and Sexuality’, succinctly explains about the Chinese patrilineal society, bringing up concepts of "patrilineality", "nei-wai (內外)", and "public sphere". Besides, Kristofer Schipper draws an interesting comparison between the ancestor worship in China and that in the west. Check the clips below to learn more.
CRL interview - Julia Huang - Patrilineality and gender
CRL interview - Kristofer Schipper - Ancestor worship
CRL interview - Julia Huang - Nei Wai and gender roles in Chinese culture
Women in the revival of religion - tzu chi
Browse the website of Tzu Chi, you can find a description of the group that goes, "the foundation has been contributing to better social and community services, medical care, education and humanism in Taiwan and around the world." In fact, Tzu Chi is one of the biggest Buddhist organizations, founded in 1966 by Master Cheng Yen 證嚴 and a few housewives on the poor east coast in Taiwan. Tzu Chi now has expanded to countries like China, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Germany, and claimed to have five million members around the world. The below clip produced by Discovery Channel introduces the charismatic Cheng Yen who lives out the Buddhist approach in charity works.
Website of Tzu Chi: http://tw.tzuchi.org/en/
Youtube clip - Discovery Channel - Master Cheng Yen and Tzu Chi (2013)
Julia Huang, the author of the book "Charisma and Charisma (領袖與慈悲)", has studies the Tzu Chi movement in Taiwan for years. The majority of Tzu Chi practitioners are women. In one Tzu Chi gathering, as Huang recalls, the crowd in the hall produced a strong voice of women, "to love the supreme person 愛上人"; and the "supreme person" is Master Cheng Yen, the well respected nun and leader of Tzu Chi. Huang explains the relations between women and Tzu Chi, and describes why and how women engage in religion. She believes that "religion can provide an arena for women to address issue, and also show their power in public world." And why are most religious practitioners women? Is it because women are more religiously active than men? Does it contradict to our understanding of China being a patrilineal soceity? Check the clips below to learn more.
CRL interview - Julia Huang - Tzu Chi as a women's movement
CRL interview - Julia Huang - The power of sisterhood in religion
CRL interview - Julia Huang - Why are most religious practitioners women